NEW YORK, Oct 10 2025 (IPS) – Egypt and Vietnam are on track to secure seats on the United Nations Human Rights Council despite being woefully unfit for membership. The UN General Assembly will elect members to the UN’s premier rights body in a noncompetitive vote on October 14, 2025.
These 2 countries are among 14 member states seeking three-year terms on the 47-nation Human Right Council starting in January 2026. Vietnam, currently a Council member, is seeking re-election.
“Noncompetitive UN votes permit abusive governments like Egypt and Vietnam to become Human Rights Council members, threatening to make a mockery of the Council,” said Louis Charbonneau, UN director at Human Rights Watch. “UN member states should stop handing Council seats on a silver platter to serial rights violators.”
Egypt, along with Angola, Mauritius, and South Africa are running for four African seats. India, Iraq, and Pakistan are joining Vietnam for the four Asian seats. For Latin America and the Caribbean, Chile, and Ecuador are unopposed for two seats.
In the Western group, Italy and the United Kingdom are running for two available seats, while Estonia and Slovenia are candidates for two seats for Central and Eastern Europe.
General Assembly Resolution 60/251, which created the Human Rights Council in 2006, urges states voting for members to “take into account the contribution of candidates to the promotion and protection of human rights.” Council members are required to “uphold the highest standards in the promotion and protection of human rights” at home and abroad and to “fully cooperate with the Council.”
Candidates only need a simple majority in the secret-ballot vote in the 193-nation General Assembly to secure a seat on the Human Rights Council. That makes it highly unlikely that any of the candidates will not be elected. Nevertheless, UN member states should not cast votes for abusive governments that are demonstrably unqualified for Council membership.
Egyptian President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi’s government has continued wholesale repression, systematically detaining and punishing peaceful critics and activists, and effectively criminalizing peaceful dissent. Government security forces have committed serious human rights abuses with near-absolute impunity. These include killing hundreds of largely peaceful protesters and widespread, systematic torture of detainees, which most likely amount to crimes against humanity.
The government also tries to prevent its own citizens from engaging with the Geneva-based Human Rights Council, and punishes those who engage with brutal reprisals. It ignores UN experts’ requests to visit the country.
The ruling Communist Party of Vietnam maintains a monopoly on political power and allows no challenge to its leadership. Basic rights are severely restricted, including freedoms of expression, peaceful assembly, association, and religion. Rights activists and bloggers face police intimidation, harassment, restricted movement, and arbitrary arrest and detention.
Mauritius and the UK, among the countries running. signed a treaty that recognizes Mauritius’ sovereignty over the Chagos islands but fails to address the ongoing crimes against humanity against Chagossians and their right of return to all the islands.
The UK forcibly displaced the Chagossian people between 1965 and 1973 to allow the US to build a military base. Mauritius and the UK should comply with their international rights obligations, including Chagossians’ right of return and should provide an effective remedy and reparations.
Angolan President João Lourenço has pledged to protect human rights, though Angolan security forces have used excessive force against political activists and peaceful protesters. South Africa has taken strong stances for accountability on Palestine and other issues. It should be similarly robust with rights violations by Russia and China.
The Bharatiya Janata Party government in India led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi has refused access to UN experts. Modi’s party leaders and supporters repeatedly vilify and attack Muslims and Christians with impunity, while the authorities often punish those who protest this campaign of Hindu majoritarianism.
Pakistan should cease the use of draconian counterterrorism and sedition laws to intimidate peaceful critics, and repeal its blasphemy laws. The government should prosecute those responsible for incitement and attacks on minorities and marginalized communities.
In 2024, Iraq passed a law criminalizing same-sex relations and transgender expression. Violence and discrimination against LGBT people are rampant, for which no one is held to account. Iraqi authorities have increasingly repressed activists and journalists.
In Ecuador, the government has attacked judicial independence and security forces have committed serious human rights violations since President Daniel Noboa declared an “internal armed conflict” in January 2024.
In Chile, President Gabriel Boric’s administration has played a leading role in speaking out on human rights violations around the world. Human rights challenges, including racism and abuses against migrants, remain a problem in the country, however.
In the UK, the authorities should end their crackdown on freedom of assembly. Many peaceful protesters in support of Palestinians or action on climate change have been arrested and some imprisoned after demonstrating.
Italy should stop criminalizing and obstructing sea rescues and enabling Libyan forces to intercept migrants and refugees and take them back to Libya, where they face arbitrary detention and grave abuses. Italy also failed to comply with a 2025 International Criminal Court arrest warrant by sending a wanted suspect back to Libya instead of to The Hague.
The Human Rights Council has played a crucial role in investigating abuses in Syria, Myanmar, North Korea, Russia, Ukraine, Israel/Palestine, and elsewhere. It recently established an investigation into serious crimes in Afghanistan by all parties—past and present —and extended its fact-finding mission for Sudan. Other countries and situations need scrutiny.
Council members should press for investigations of abuses by major powers, such as China’s crimes against humanity against Uyghurs and others in Xinjiang, and take up extrajudicial killings by the US of alleged narcotics traffickers on sea vessels.
For Council investigations to be credible, it needs financing. It is critical for countries to pay their assessed UN dues while boosting voluntary contributions. This will ensure that independent human rights investigations do not become casualties of the UN’s financial crisis resulting from the Trump administration halting virtually all payments to the UN and China and others paying late.
“The Human Rights Council has been able to save countless lives by carrying out numerous human rights investigations that deter governments and armed groups from committing abuses,” Charbonneau said. “All governments should recognize that it’s in their interests to promptly pay their UN dues so the rights Council can do its job.”
Dr. John E. Fleming, a distinguished museum leader, historian, husband, father and mentor to many in the museum profession, passed away on Friday, Sept. 12, 2025. He was 81 years old. He had lived in Yellow Springs for 35 years. Dr. Fleming was well known as a pre-eminent scholar, academician and author whose life’s work was the preservation and interpretation of African American history and culture.
His career was firmly rooted in the historic black community as he came of age. A native of Morganton, North Carolina, he received his bachelor’s degree from Berea College and in the 1960s served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Malawi, East Africa, where he was assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture. After his return to the United States, he worked for Pride Inc. under Marion Barry and as a program analyst for the U.S. Civil Rights Commission.
Dr. Fleming went on to pursue advanced degrees, earning both a master’s degree and a doctorate in American history from Howard University in Washington, D.C. While serving as a Senior Fellow at Howard’s Institute for the Study of Educational Policy, he wrote two books on African American education: “The Lengthening Shadow of Slavery” and “The Case for Affirmative Action for Blacks in Higher Education.”
Dr. Fleming’s museum career began in 1980 when he joined the Ohio Historical Society as the Afro-American Museum project director. He was the founding director of the National Afro-American Museum and Cultural Center in Wilberforce, Ohio, and later became the director and chief operating officer for the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Over the course of his career, he was directly involved in the development of six museums, including the International African American Museum in Charleston, South Carolina; the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum in Jackson, Mississippi; and the National Museum of African American Music, in Nashville, Tennessee, where he served as immediate past director. He also served as director emeritus of the Cincinnati Museum Center and as an adjunct professor in the department of history at the University of Cincinnati.
His leadership extended across several respected historical and cultural organizations. He was president of the Ohio Museums Association, the Association for the Study of African American Life and History and the Association of African American Museums. He was appointed by President George W. Bush to serve on the commission for the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of African American History and Culture. He was the immediate past chair of the board for the American Association for State and Local History and was recently appointed by Gov. Mike DeWine to the Ohio Semiquincentennial Commission. Locally, he was an active member of the YS Men’s Association.
Dr. Fleming was also a prolific writer and scholar: He was author of five books and 50 articles throughout his career. In addition to his scholarly works, he published two memoirs: “A Summer Remembered,” about his childhood in North Carolina, and “Mission to Malawi,” about his time in the Peace Corps.
He was a recipient of numerous accolades, including distinguished service awards from the Association of African American Museums, the American Association for State and Local History, the National Peace Corps, Berea College, the Ohio Library Association, and the National Peace Corps. In his honor, the Association of African American Museums named its highest honor the John E. Fleming Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2020, he was named one of the Top Ten African Americans in Dayton, Ohio.
But Dr. Fleming was proudest of the time that he devoted to his family and community. He is survived by his wife, Barbara, a psychologist and writer, of Yellow Springs; and his two daughters, one a lawyer and the other a museum professional who followed in her father’s footsteps as a curator of American art. Dr. Fleming is also survived by two grandsons, a brother, a sister and numerous relatives.
He was a former board member and volunteer for the St. Vincent de Paul Homeless shelter in Dayton. And he was a proud member of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity and Sigma Pi Phi, known as the Boule.
Dr. Fleming’s family plans to hold a memorial service in his honor at the National Afro American Museum and Cultural Center in Wilberforce, Ohio. The date and time of the memorial will be posted online and in the Yellow Springs News.
Gina Romero is UN Special Rapporteur for the rights to freedom of assembly and of association.
Credit: UN Web TV
BOGOTA, Colombia, Oct 9 2025 (IPS) – The collapse of aid architecture is one of the greatest dangers for civic space. This shift is not accidental but systemic, reflecting deliberate policy choices – not only by the US but accelerated by its decisions- that prioritize security agendas over human rights and solidarity.
Aid cuts, securitization, and geopolitical rivalries have led to the defunding of grassroots organizations, especially those led by women, LGBTQI groups, and marginalized communities. As a result, associations that once filled critical gaps are disappearing. These dynamics as existential because without resources, protections, and solidarity, civil society cannot survive—let alone flourish.
This is the center of my more recent report, that will be presented at the UN General Assembly on October 16th.
Civil society’s weakening has direct consequences for human rights protection and democratic participation. Without independent associations, accountability mechanisms collapse, and corruption flourishes. The report highlights that marginalized groups are disproportionately affected, as grassroots organizations are often their only safety net. The dismantling of solidarity also jeopardizes progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
For example, women’s organizations that once advanced gender equality and access to reproductive health are closing. LGBTQI associations providing health services face funding cuts. Environmental defenders, crucial in climate justice, are left exposed.
Thus, the report warns that the rollback of aid and civic freedoms undermines not only democracy but also global commitments to equality and sustainability.
The report makes a call for urgent action to rebuild international solidarity and redesign the architecture of aid in ways that strengthen rather than weaken civic space. The vision is for a people-centered, rights-based, and sustainable system of cooperation. Key elements include:
Guaranteeing equitable access to resources: ensuring groups with high vulnerabilities, have direct and fair access to funding. Includes aid models that channels resources to local civil society, avoiding intermediaries, and simplified bureaucratic procedures.
Repealing restrictive laws and counter-terrorism measures: ending the misuse of security frameworks—such as counter-terrorism and anti-money laundering— and repealing laws that stigmatize NGOs as “foreign agents” or limit their ability to operate freely.
Ensuring meaningful participation of civil society: in multilateral decision-making, as equal partners shaping priorities, including global financing mechanisms and SDG implementation frameworks.
Aligning aid with human rights and civic space protection: Condition aid and credits on compliance with obligations to protect freedoms and rights and promote long-term, flexible funding instead of short-term project-based support.
Protecting digital freedoms and resisting securitization: Safeguarding the use of technologies, including spyware and facial recognition technologies, for association and assembly while preventing its misuse for surveillance and repression.
Reimagining solidarity: Shifting from a charity-based approach to one of global justice and shared responsibility; supporting civil society is not an act of benevolence but a legal and moral obligation under international human rights law.
Children in Bangladesh riding a boat through a flooded river to attend school. Bangladesh is one of the most climate-sensitive regions in the world. Credit: UNICEF/Suman Paul Himu
UNITED NATIONS, Oct 8 2025 (IPS) – In recent years, international climate financing has declined sharply, leaving billions of people in developing nations increasingly vulnerable to natural disasters and unable to adapt effectively. With major cuts in foreign aid, these communities are expected to face the brunt of the climate crisis, while wealthier nations continue to reap economic benefits.
This comes ahead of the 30th United Nations (UN) Climate Change Conference (COP30), in which world leaders, diplomats, and civil society groups will converge in Belém, Brazil, from November 10–21, to discuss strategies to strengthen global cooperation, advance inclusive and sustainable development, and accelerate efforts to address the climate crisis. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) states that there will be a major focus on allocating public funds for mitigation and adaptation efforts in developing countries, aiming to mobilize at least USD 300 billion annually by 2035 for developing countries and a yearly USD 1.3 trillion over the same period.
In the report, CARE and Oxfam found that developing countries are paying disproportionately high disbursements to wealthy nations in exchange for comparatively modest climate finance loans—spending about seven dollars for every five dollars they receive in return. This, compounded with “the most vicious foreign aid cuts since the 1960s”, shows a nearly 9 percent drop in climate funding in 2024, which is projected to drop by a further 9-17 percent in 2025.
“Rich countries are failing on climate finance and they have nothing like a plan to live up to their commitments to increase support. In fact, many wealthy countries are gutting aid, leaving the poorest to pay the price, sometimes with their lives” said John Norbo, Senior Climate Advisor at CARE Denmark. “COP30 must deliver justice, not another round of empty promises.”
As of 2022, developed nations reported pledging approximately USD 116 billion in climate funding for developing countries. However, the actual amount delivered is less than one-third of the pledged total — estimated at only USD 28–35 billion. Nearly 70 percent of this funding came in the form of loans, often issued at standard rates of interest without concessions. As a result, wealthy nations are driving developing countries deeper into debt, despite these nations contributing the least to the climate crisis and lacking the resources to manage its impacts.
It is estimated that developing countries are indebted by approximately USD 3.3 trillion. In 2022, developing countries received roughly USD 62 billion in climate loans, which is projected to produce over USD 88 billion for wealthy countries, yielding a 42 percent profit for creditors. The countries issuing the highest concessional loans in climate financing were France, Japan, Italy, Spain, and Germany.
“Rich countries are treating the climate crisis as a business opportunity, not a moral obligation,” said Oxfam’s Climate Policy Lead, Nafkote Dabi. “They are lending money to the very people they have historically harmed, trapping vulnerable nations in a cycle of debt. This is a form of crisis profiteering.”
Despite wealthy nations issuing high loans to developing countries, Least Developed Countries (LDCs) received only 19.5 percent of the total public climate funding over 2021-2022, while Small Island Developing States (SIDs) received roughly 2.9 percent. Only 33 percent of this funding went toward climate adaptation, a “critically underfunded” measure according to Oxfam, as the majority of creditors favor investing in mitigation efforts that deliver faster financial returns. Additionally, only 3 percent of this funding went to gender equality efforts, despite women and girls being disproportionately impacted by the climate crisis.
The report also underscores the dire impacts of the misallocation of climate financing and funding cuts, as vulnerable communities in particularly climate-sensitive environments find themselves with far fewer resources to adapt to natural disasters.
In 2024, communities in the Horn of Africa were ravaged by brutal cycles of droughts and flooding, which displaced millions of civilians and pushed tens of millions into food insecurity. In Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, massive floods caused over 180 civilian deaths, displaced 600,000 people, and the resulting damage led to billions of dollars in losses. According to figures from UNICEF, around 35 million children in Bangladesh experienced school disruptions in 2024 due to heatwaves, cyclones, and floods, posing serious risks to their long-term development. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) warns that global temperatures are on course to rise to a “catastrophic” 3°C by the end of the century, with extreme weather events expected to intensify further.
Ahead of the COP30 conference, Oxfam has urged wealthy nations to honor their climate finance commitments, including the delivery of the full USD 600 billion pledged for the 2020–2025 period, aligning with the UN’s target of mobilizing USD 300 billion annually. The organization also called for a substantial increase in global funding for climate adaptation and loss management, alongside the implementation of higher taxes on the wealthiest individuals and fossil fuel companies—which could generate an estimated USD 400 billion per year. Additionally, Oxfam emphasized the need for developed countries to stop deepening the debt of climate-vulnerable nations by expanding the share of grants and highly concessional financing instead of standard loans.
Vision correction through spectacle wear represents a critical healthcare intervention globally, with uncorrected refractive error remaining one of the leading causes of visual impairment worldwide.1 While advancements in optical lens technology have significantly improved vision correction capabilities, delivering these benefits ultimately depends on proper spectacle fit. Ill-fitting frames cause physical discomfort and can lead to optical misalignment, reduced compliance, and persistent visual impairment.2–4
The global eyewear market continues to expand and is projected to reach USD 178.95 billion by 2026.5 However, this growth has not been accompanied by equivalent advances in frame designs that accommodate global populations’ anthropometric diversity. Particularly in Africa, where over 1.3 billion people represent tremendous genetic and phenotypic diversity, the availability of properly fitting eyewear remains a significant challenge.1,6,7
Historical and contemporary eyewear design has predominantly been informed by European and, more recently, East Asian anthropometric measurements.3 These standards often fail to accommodate the distinct facial features common across various African populations, including differences in nasal bridge height, interpupillary distance, facial width, and orbital structure.8,9 The result is a substantial disparity in eyewear fit for many African consumers, contributing to discomfort, dissatisfaction, and reduced adherence to the prescribed vision correction.3
The implications of this design mismatch extend beyond mere comfort, affecting clinical outcomes, social acceptance of eyewear, and market accessibility. As vision care programs expand across Africa, addressing this fundamental challenge of appropriate frame design becomes increasingly important for sustainable eye health interventions.10
This narrative review aims to synthesize existing literature on African facial anthropometry related to spectacle frame design, explore current challenges in eyewear fit for African populations, and identify emerging solutions and opportunities in this field. By bridging knowledge from anthropometry, optical design, materials science, and cultural considerations, this review seeks to contribute to developing more inclusive and appropriate eyewear solutions for African consumers.
Methodology
This study employed a narrative review approach to synthesize existing literature on African facial anthropometry and its implications for spectacle frame design. A comprehensive search was conducted using academic databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and EBSCOHost. Keywords used in the search included “African facial anthropometry”, “spectacle frame design”, “eyewear fit”, “craniofacial dimensions”, “spectacle frame design”, and “ethnic variations in eyewear.”
Inclusion criteria comprised peer-reviewed journal articles, books, and industry reports providing insight into the anthropometric characteristics of African populations and their relevance to eyewear design. Studies published between 2000 and 2025 were prioritised to ensure contemporary relevance, though seminal older works were included where appropriate. Studies focusing exclusively on Eurocentric and Asian facial models without comparative analysis were excluded.
The literature retrieved was reviewed for key themes, including nasal bridge structure, facial width, temple length, head shape, and cheekbone prominence. Additionally, studies on material innovations, technological advancements, and localised eyewear production were considered to explore solutions for improving spectacle frame fit for African users.
Data were analyzed qualitatively to identify trends, challenges, and future research and product development implications. This methodological approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter while highlighting the gaps in the existing literature that warrant further investigation.
Anthropometric Considerations in Spectacle Frame Design
Critical Facial Measurements for Eyewear Fit
The proper fit of spectacle frames depends on several key facial measurements that determine how frames sit on the face and align with the eyes. These critical measurements include:
Interpupillary Distance (IPD)
The distance between the pupil centres affects lens centration and the optical performance of spectacles. Research has demonstrated significant variations in IPD across different populations, with implications for frame bridge width requirements.8,11,12
Nasal Root Height and Width
The height and width of the nasal root directly impact how frames sit on the face. A lower nasal bridge height may cause frames to slide down, while width variations affect pressure distribution and stability.13
Bitragal Width
This measurement across the face at the ear level influences the required frame width and temple length. Frames that are too narrow or wide relative to this measurement cause discomfort through excessive pressure or instability.14
Frontozygomatic Distance
The distance between the outer corners of the eye orbits affects frame front size and lens positioning. This measurement varies significantly across populations and may impact peripheral vision through spectacle frames.15–17
Head Circumference
This measurement influences temple length requirements and overall frame stability. Variations in head circumference affect the tension required for frames to remain secure without causing discomfort.11,15
Vertex Distance
The distance from the corneal apex to the back surface of the spectacle lens affects optical performance, particularly for higher prescriptions. Anthropometric variations influencing this distance have direct clinical implications.18
These measurements form the foundation for ergonomic frame design, with deviations from the intended fit potentially causing both physical discomfort and optical performance issues. Studies by Naude and Campbell,3 Halladay et al,11 Rosyidi et al.,15 and Tian and Ball19 have demonstrated that even small discrepancies between facial anthropometry and frame dimensions can significantly impact the wearers’ comfort and compliance.
The following diagram depicts anthropometric measurements that may be relevant to spectacle frame design (Figure 1):
Figure 1 Facial anthropometric measurements relevant to spectacle frame design (designed by authors). (a) Inner-intercanthal distance. (b) Outer-intercanthal distance. (c) Nose width. (d) Face width. (e) Head width. (f) Frontal angle. (g) Temple length. (h) interpupillary distance. (i) crest angle.
African Facial Anthropometry: Key Findings
Research on African facial anthropometry has revealed distinct patterns that differentiate these populations from European and Asian groups for whom most spectacle frames are designed. While acknowledging the tremendous diversity within the African continent, several commonalities have been identified that have particular relevance to eyewear design:
Nasal Bridge Characteristics
The nasal bridge represents one of spectacle fit’s most critical anatomical features. Research has consistently demonstrated significant variation in nasal bridge dimensions across different African populations. Farkas et al20 conducted comprehensive anthropometric studies across multiple ethnic groups and found that individuals of African descent typically present with wider and flatter nasal bridges compared to Caucasian populations.
Interpupillary Distance
Pivnick documented that African populations generally exhibit wider interpupillary distances compared to European counterparts.21 Their research indicated a mean IPD of approximately 66.1 mm in adult African males compared to or mm in European males. Whilst in more recent studies, Halladay et al11 noted that Malawi children could wear eyewear designed for the Chinese population. This further highlights the variation in interracial facial anthropometric measurements. A study by Butler et al,22 noted that the mean IPD was significantly greater than international standards used in mass-produced eyewear, suggesting potential issues with optical centration in standard spectacle frames. Modrolu et al23 and Moodley et al2 emphasised that improper alignment of optical centres, often resulting from inappropriate IPD consideration in eyewear design, can induce prismatic effects, causing visual discomfort and adaptation issues.
Facial Width Measurements
Oladipo et al16 conducted anthropometric studies in Nigeria and found that bizygomatic width (the maximum distance between the most lateral points of the zygomatic arches) was significantly greater in their study population compared to Caucasian reference standards. In another comparative study of facial dimensions across multiple ethnicities, they noted that African populations typically exhibited greater facial width-to-height ratios than Asian and European populations.9 This finding has significant implications for temple length and frame front dimensions in eyewear design.
Bitemporal Proportions
Ofodile and Bhokari24 documented greater bitemporal widths in African populations than European reference standards. Their work suggested that standard eyewear frames often provide insufficient temple coverage for individuals of African descent. Naude and Campbell3 highlighted that ill-fitting temple dimensions represent one of the most common complaints among African eyewear consumers, with many reporting discomforts due to excessive temple pressure or insufficient temple length.
Orbital Structure
Barretto and Mathog25 observed that African populations typically present with larger orbital apertures and more slightly rectangular orbital shapes compared to the more circular orbits common in European populations. Jilani et al26 documented greater orbital heights in African populations compared to Asian populations, while orbital widths were comparable. These findings suggest the need for different approaches to lens shape and frame design to appropriately accommodate these variations.
These anthropometric differences have substantial implications for spectacle fit. Conventional frames, which are typically designed based on European facial structures often create fitting challenges for African wearers. Common issues include frames slipping down the nose due to lower nasal bridge height, bridge pinching or visible gaps resulting from broader nasal structures, and temple discomfort or looseness caused by variations in head circumference. Additionally, differences in IPD can lead to optical misalignment, while variations in orbital and cheekbone structure may result in frame front instability or localized pressure points, ultimately compromising both comfort and visual performance.
Regional Variations Within Africa
While certain anthropometric patterns appear common across African populations, significant regional variations exist that further complicate spectacle frame design. The continent’s tremendous genetic diversity manifests in measurable craniofacial differences between populations:
Southern Africa
Black South African women exhibit wider nasal widths, averaging 40.4 mm in a study conducted by Wilson et al9 and greater nasal tip projection compared to the Congolese and African American populations. Their facial height proportions also diverge from neoclassical norms, with shorter upper facial thirds relative to mid and lower thirds.9 Among Zimbabwean rural populations, studies show narrower interpupillary distances of 60.7 mm in males and 59.5 mm in females but larger bitemporal width of 147.7 mm in males and 141.3 mm in females compared to Asian and Caucasian populations.27 These metrics conflict with standard frame designs, leading to discomfort and poor fit.
Eastern Africa
Studies have shown that Kenyan and Sudanese populations exhibit distinct midface-to-lower face ratios compared to Southern African groups, necessitating adjustments in frame curvature and lens positioning.9
West Africa
Schoolchildren in Enugu, Nigeria, prioritize frame aesthetics, favouring oval shapes 47.2% and metallic colours 29.5%, with rural children more likely to choose thicker frames.28 These preferences intersect with anthropometric needs, such as broader head widths observed in Ghanaian studies.29 West African populations generally have shorter front-to-bend measurements than Southern African groups, possibly influencing the sidepiece design.
North Africa
Limited published data exists, but proximity to Mediterranean and Middle Eastern populations suggests narrower nasal bridges and smaller head widths compared to sub-Saharan regions. Urban centres like Cairo may exhibit hybrid features due to migration, though rural areas likely retain more homogeneous traits.
The following Table 1 is a summary of key facial anthropometric measurements relevant to spectacle frame design – specifically, nasal width, nasal bridge height, intercanthal width, facial width, and temple length, across African, European, and Asian populations. These values are means or typical ranges reported in relevant literature.
Table 1 A Summary of Key Facial Anthropometric Measurements Relevant to Spectacle Frame Design
Urban vs Rural Dynamics in Eyewear Fit and Access
The dynamics of spectacle frame access, use, and fit vary significantly between urban and rural settings, influenced by differences in infrastructure, cultural perceptions, and facial anthropometry.
Access and Infrastructure
Urban areas host optical chains and private optometry practices offering a wide selection of spectacle frames, including modern, customizable options. These environments often support onsite adjustments and professional fittings. In contract, rural regions are more reliant on sporadic outreach services or informal vendors who supply generic, often ill-fitting frames.34 For example, in rural Zimbabwe, 54.2% of vision impairment due to uncorrected refractive error is exacerbated by limited access to eyecare services and appropriate spectacle correction.27,35
Cultural Perceptions
Cultural attitudes toward spectacles differ between urban and rural populations. Urban youth tend to view eyewear as both a vision aid and a fashion accessory, often favouring lightweight, trendy, and expressive frame styles.28,34 In contrast, many rural populations perceive spectacles primarily as medical devices, which contributes to lower adoption rates and poor compliance. Negative beliefs or stigma surrounding spectacle wear—especially for children—persist in some rural areas, where they may be associated with illness, disability, or age.34 These perceptions can undermine public health efforts to improve visual outcomes through corrective eyewear.
Anthropometric Variability
Urbanisation and migration patterns have led to increased diversity in facial features within city populations, resulting in a wider range of anthropometric measurements. This necessitates the availability of adjustable or customisable frame designs to accommodate the heterogeneity in facial dimensions. Conversely, rural populations often exhibit more homogenous anthropometric profiles, which theoretically allows for targeted frame designs. However, these communities typically lack access to frames tailored to their specific facial dimensions. Generic imported frames—usually based on European or East Asian facial standards—fail to align with the broader nasal widths, flatter nasal bridges, and wider interpupillary distances more common in African rural populations.34
This analysis underscores the need for location-specific approaches in spectacle frame design, distribution, and promotion. Addressing rural-urban disparities requires not only improved infrastructure and access but also culturally sensitive, anthropometrically appropriate eyewear solutions that promote comfort, compliance, and visual health equity.
Current Challenges in Spectacle Frame Design in African Populations
Commercial Availability and Market Gaps
The global eyewear industry has historically underserved African markets with appropriately designed frames. Several factors contribute to this persistent gap:
Dominance of Eurocentric Design Standards
Globally, the spectacle frame industry continues to be dominated by Eurocentric anthropometric norms. Over 80% of eyewear designs are based on European and North American facial measurements,3 resulting in widespread fit mismatches for many African consumers. This legacy of Eurocentric design undermines comfort, stability, and visual performance in African populations, whose craniofacial dimensions often differ significantly.
Limited Market Research
Major eyewear manufacturers have historically invested minimal resources in understanding African consumer needs. Unlike the Asian market—where extensive anthropometric research has led to tailored frame designs—African populations remain underrepresented in global design strategies. Naude and Campbell3 highlight that African-specific research and development are scarce, with limited local data informing global product lines.
Supply Chain Challenges
The distribution of eyewear in many African markets faces significant logistical hurdles. Key issues include poor transportation infrastructure:
Transportation Infrastructure Limitations: Poor road conditions, long lead times due to border delays, and security concerns (including theft during transit) severely impact the timely and safe delivery of eyewear products. Studies in South Africa highlight how defective roads cause damage to transport fleets and products, while border congestion and customs delays further extend delivery times, increasing costs and risks.36 Additionally, congestion in urban centres can cause delays of days, complicating distribution planning.
Impact on Manufacturers: These logistical challenges disincentivise major eyewear manufacturers from investing in Africa-specific product lines because the cost and complexity of distribution reduce profitability and market predictability.36,37
Price Sensitivity
African markets are highly price-sensitive, which creates tension between the need for specialised, culturally appropriate eyewear designs and affordability:
Willingness to Pay: Research indicates that low- and middle-income consumers in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), including many African markets, are willing to pay no more than about 10% of their monthly income for spectacle, often equating to just a few dollars (eg, around $3.80). This price sensitivity is driven by limited disposable income and competing priorities.
Premium Pricing for Specialised Designs: Spectacle frames designed specifically for African facial features tend to command premium prices, which limits accessibility for the majority of consumers. The high cost is often due to smaller production volumes, import costs, and a lack of local manufacturing capacity. This premium pricing conflicts with the affordability needs of the market.
Fragmented Retail Environments
The optical retail landscape in Africa is highly fragmented, ranging from sophisticated urban optical shops to basic rural dispensing services:
Diverse Retail Formats: While urban centres may have modern optical shops, the majority of eyewear sales occur through informal or small-scale outlets such as mom-and-pop shops, kiosks, or rural clinics. This fragmentation complicates distribution and market penetration for specialized frame designs.
Distribution Challenges: Serving a widely dispersed and fragmented retail base is costly and logistically complex. Small retail outlets often have limited cash flow and storage capacity, requiring intermediaries to break bulk and adding layers to the supply chain.
Supply Chain Visibility and Technology: Limited visibility across the supply chain and the high cost of technology solutions hinder efficient distribution. Companies often rely on third-party logistics providers (3PLs) familiar with local customs and regulations, but last-mile delivery remains a challenge.
Market Entry Barriers: The fragmentation and diversity of retail environments create significant barriers for new entrants and specialised product lines, requiring tailored distribution strategies and local partnerships.
Clinical Implications of Poor Frame Fit
The mismatch between available frame designs and African facial anthropometry creates several clinical challenges with direct impact on vision care outcomes:
Optical Misalignment
When frames do not properly align with the face, the optical centres of lenses may be displaced from the pupillary axis. Research by Moodley et al2 demonstrated that a majority of the participants were found not to be looking through the optical centres of their lenses, compromising corrective outcomes.
Reduced Compliance
Discomfort from poorly fitting frames directly impacts wearer compliance.2,38 Omolase and Mahmoud39 found that among Nigerian patients prescribed spectacles, 28% of the participants reported non-compliance due to ill-fitting frames.
Vertex Distance Variations
Misfit frames—particularly those with poorly aligned nose bridges or temples—alter the vertex distance unpredictably. This is especially problematic for higher prescriptions, where optical performance is sensitive to this variable.18
Limited Options for Speciality Needs
Specific clinical needs, such as frames for children, sports eyewear, safety glasses, and low vision devices, are particularly underserved. Kumaran and Periakaruppan40 expressed that in a majority of cases, spectacle frames for children are a reduced version of adult frames, lacking consideration for paediatric craniofacial dimensions and activity levels.
These clinical implications extend beyond mere discomfort, directly affecting the efficacy of vision correction and potentially compromising clinical outcomes in vision care programs.
Socio-Cultural Factors Affecting Eyewear Adoption
Beyond technical and clinical considerations, several socio-cultural factors influence eyewear adoption and preferences in African contexts:
Aesthetic Preferences
Cultural aesthetics and beauty standards influence frame style preferences. Research by Naude and Campbell3 indicated that frame designs popular in Western markets often failed to align with local aesthetic preferences in multiple African countries, adding another dimension to design considerations beyond anatomical fit.
Stigma and Social Perception
In some communities, eyewear continues to carry social stigma or specific associations. In certain communities, spectacle wear was associated with ageing or disability, creating social barriers to adoption that compound technical fit issues.41,42
Gender Considerations
Gender roles and expectations influence eyewear preferences and adoption patterns. Research has found significant gender differences in frame style preferences and comfort priorities, with women more frequently reporting concerns about aesthetic impact and men more frequently prioritising durability.41,43
Traditional Healing Perspectives
In communities where traditional healing practices remain prominent, the adoption of corrective eyewear may interact with existing health belief systems. Understanding these interactions is essential for culturally appropriate design and distribution approaches.44,45
Climate Adaptations
Environmental factors including heat, humidity, and dust affect frame performance requirements. Some spectacle frame materials performing well in temperate climates may fail prematurely in tropical African environments, necessitating different material selection priorities.46
Addressing these socio-cultural dimensions alongside technical fit considerations represents a critical challenge for improving spectacle frame design for African consumers. Naude and Campbell3 argue that these considerations should not be treated as peripheral but as foundational to creating equitable and contextually appropriate eyewear solutions.
Innovations and Solutions
Anthropometric Research and Databases
Recent efforts to address the gap in African anthropometric data include:
Digital Anthropometric Mapping
The use of 3D scanning technologies has significantly enhanced the precision and scale of facial anthropometry studies. Adekunle et al47 determined normative facial anthropometry measurement among 452 Nigerians using a 3D stereophotogrammetry analysis, which showed that there was a significant difference in the facial dimensions of males compared to females across all age groups included in the study.
Mobile Measurement Technologies
Innovations in smartphone-based anthropometric measurement tools show promise for expanding data collection capacity. Hartmann et al48 validated a smartphone application capable of measuring key facial dimensions with accuracy comparable to traditional anthropometric tools, potentially enabling wider-scale data collection.
These research initiatives provide essential foundations for improved frame design, though significant gaps remain, particularly regarding systematic data collection across diverse African populations and age groups.
Frame Design Adaptations
Several design approaches have emerged to better accommodate African facial anthropometry:
Adjustable Bridge Systems
Innovative bridge designs including articulated, adjustable, and floating bridge systems allow for customization to different nasal bridge heights and widths. Thermoplastic materials like cellulose acetate allow heat-adjustable bridges to accommodate wider nasal measurements common in sub-Saharan populations.46
Modified Pad Arms and Positioning
Specialized pad arm geometries and positioning accommodate lower nasal bridge heights while maintaining frame stability. Replace traditional rigid pads with flexible silicone versions that conform to diverse nasal bridge heights and widths, reducing pressure points.49
Temple Design Modifications
Temples with adjusted length-to-curve ratios better accommodate head circumference variations. African populations show wider head widths, for example, Zimbabwean and Ghanaian males, when compared to their Asian averages of 136–140 mm, requiring temples up to 150 mm with graduated curvature.11,27 The use of cable temples is also recommended; the curved riding bow designs prevent slippage in active wearers, particularly beneficial for rural populations engaged in physical labour.49
Frame Front Curvature Adaptations
Modified frame front curvatures better accommodate wider facial measurements.
Weight Distribution Engineering
Innovative approaches to frame weight distribution compensate for lower nasal bridge support.
These design adaptations demonstrate potential for improving frame fit for African wearers, though their availability remains limited in most markets.
Material Innovations
Novel materials offer potential solutions to specific challenges in frame fit for African populations:
Variable Flexibility Materials: New polymer blends providing graduated flexibility allow frames to conform to diverse facial structures.
Climate-Appropriate Materials: Materials engineered for performance in tropical climates address durability and comfort challenges.
Biocompatible Materials: Advanced biocompatible materials reduce skin reactions and irritation, particularly important in humid climates.
Memory Materials: Shape-memory alloys and polymers enable frames to maintain custom adjustments while providing flexibility. Research found that frames incorporating these materials required re-adjustment less frequently than conventional frames.19,50
Lightweight Composites: Ultra-lightweight composite materials reduce pressure concerns related to lower nasal bridge support.
While promising, many of these material innovations remain at premium price points, limiting their accessibility in price-sensitive markets. However, they demonstrate pathways for addressing specific fit challenges through material selection and engineering.
Digital Manufacturing and Customization
Emerging digital technologies offer new approaches to frame customization:
3D Scanning and Printing: Digital facial scanning paired with 3D printing enables truly customized frame production.
Parametric Design Systems: Software utilizing parametric design principles allows semi-customization based on key measurements.
Virtual Try-On Technologies: Advanced virtual try-on systems incorporate anthropometric analysis to recommend appropriate frame styles.
Mass Customization Approaches: Modified Production Systems Enable Cost-Effective Customization at Scale.
Modular Frame Systems: Component-based frames allowing interchange of bridges, temples, and fronts offer practical customisation options.
These technological approaches show particular promise for addressing the diversity of anthropometric needs within African populations, though implementation challenges, including equipment costs, technical training, and infrastructure requirements, remain significant barriers to widespread adoption.
Conclusion
This narrative review has examined the critical relationship between African facial anthropometry and spectacle frame design, revealing persistent challenges in providing appropriately fitting eyewear to diverse African populations. The literature clearly demonstrates that facial measurements common across various African populations often differ significantly from the European and East Asian standards that inform most commercial frame designs. These differences, particularly in nasal bridge structure, facial width, and orbital characteristics, create fundamental fit challenges affecting comfort, stability, and optical performance.
The implications extend beyond mere comfort, impacting clinical outcomes through reduced compliance, optical misalignment, and limited options for specialized needs. Socio-cultural dimensions further complicate eyewear adoption, with aesthetic preferences, social perceptions, and environmental factors influencing successful frame design and selection.
Emerging solutions offer promising directions for improvement. Expanded anthropometric research provides essential foundations for evidence-based design, while innovations in adjustable frame systems, appropriate materials, and digital customisation technologies demonstrate pathways to better-fitting eyewear. Case studies from various African contexts illustrate both successful approaches and implementation challenges in translating anthropometric knowledge into practical improvements.
Looking forward, priorities include expanded research representation across Africa’s diverse populations, industry adaptation through broader size ranges and region-appropriate designs, clinical practice improvements through measurement protocols and fitting expertise, and technological innovation enabling greater customization and accessibility.
The development of spectacle frames truly appropriate for African facial anthropometry represents not merely a technical challenge but an essential component of equitable global eye care. As vision correction programs expand across Africa, addressing this fundamental aspect of appropriate eyewear becomes increasingly critical for sustainable impact. The evidence suggests that through combined efforts in research, design innovation, clinical practice, and technology development, significant improvements in spectacle frame fit for African populations are both possible and necessary.
Disclosure
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.
2. Moodley VR, Kadwa F, Nxumalo B, Penceliah S, Ramkalam B, Zama A. Induced prismatic effects due to poorly fitting spectacle frames. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2011;70.
3. Naude M, Campbell AD. Not the “regular” fit: a socio-technical systems approach to designing eyewear in South Africa. In: Trimble J, Osman A, Stephenson B, Kadoda G, editors. 9th International Conference on Appropriate Technology; Pretoria: Tshwane University of Technology; 2020.
4. Thompson AJ. Paediatric Facial Anthropometry Applied to Spectacle Frame Design [Doctoral Thesis] Aston University; 2021.
6. van Staden D, Munsamy A. Integrated, people-centred eye care: why South Africa needs to prioritise. South Afr Med J. 2021;111(10):924. doi:10.7196/SAMJ.2021.v111i10.15918
7. Gomez F, Hirbo J, Tishkoff SA. Genetic variation and adaptation in Africa: implications for human evolution and disease. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Biol. 2014;6:a008524.
8. Mhaleni V, Maponya M, Ramakatsa L, Mahlakwana L, Mathebula SD. Interpupillary distance measurements for the African population of Polokwane in Limpopo province, South Africa. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2021;80(1). doi:10.4102/aveh.v80i1.582
9. Wilson S, Medapati V, Segwapa K. Facial anthropometric norms of the Young Black South African woman. Plastic Reconstruct Surg Global Open. 2023;11(4).
10. Buthelezi LM, van Staden D. Integrating eye health into policy: evidence for health systems strengthening in KwaZulu-Natal. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2020;79.
11. Halladay AC, Thandiwe M, Ayerakwah P, Dennis S, Manjariwa J, George K. Ophthalmic anthropometry of an urban malawian population. Cogent Med. 2019;6(1):1614287. doi:10.1080/2331205X.2019.1614287
12. Tang CY, Tang N, Stewart MC. Facial measurements for frame design. Optometry Vision Sci. 1998;75(4):288–292. doi:10.1097/00006324-199804000-00027
13. Gowing J. Paediatric eye care – Part 1. Optician. 2017;2017(11):6837. doi:10.12968/opti.2017.11.6837
15. Rosyidi C, Riyanti N, Iftadi I. Head and facial anthropometry for determining the critical glasses frame dimensions. J Eng Sci Technol. 2016;11(11).
16. Oladipo GS, Okoh PD, Akande PA, Oyakhire MO. Anthropometric study of some craniofacial parameters: head circumference, nasal height, nasal width and nasal index of adult Omoku indigenes of Nigeria. Ame J Sci Indust Res. 2010;2(1).
17. Gupta V, Sodhi P, Pandey R. Normal values for inner intercanthal, interpupillary, and outer intercanthal distances in the Indian population. Int J Clin Pract. 2003;57(1):25–29. doi:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2003.tb11392.x
18. Costa Neto A, Guedes J, Mora-Perez DJ, et al. Vertex distance variability of the Vision-S 700 refractors in normal population. Rev Bras Oftalmol. 2024;83.
19. Tian Y, Ball R. Parametric design for custom-fit eyewear frames. Heliyon. 2023;9(9):e19946. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19946
20. Farkas LG, Katic MJ, Forrest CR. International anthropometric study of facial morphology in various ethnic groups/races. J Craniofac Surg. 2005;16(4):615–646. doi:10.1097/01.scs.0000171847.58031.9e
21. Pivnick E, Rivas M, Tolley E, Smith S, Presbury G. Interpupillary distance in a black population. Clin Genet. 1999;55(3):182–191. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0004.1999.550306.x
22. Butler MA, Jowell ME, Clarke-Farr PC. Analysis of readymade readers and near-interpupillary distance for presbyopic patients in optometric practice in Cape Town, South Africa. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2016;75(1). doi:10.4102/aveh.v75i1.316
23. Madrolu VSK, Male SR, Bhardwaj R. Influence of prismatic effect due to decentration of optical center in ophthalmic lens. Health Sci Rep. 2023;6.
24. Ofodile F, Bhokari F. The African-American Nose (Part II). Ann Plastic Surgery. 1995;34(2):123–129. doi:10.1097/00000637-199502000-00003
25. Barretto RL, Mathog RH. Orbital Measurement in Black and White Populations. Laryngoscope. 1999;109(7):1051–1054. doi:10.1097/00005537-199907000-00007
26. Jilani SK, Ugail H, Logan A. Inter-ethnic and demic-group variations in craniofacial anthropometry: a review. PSM Biolog Res. 2019;4(1).
27. Kyei S, Tagoh S, Kwarteng M, Aboagye E. Ophthalmic anthropometry among rural dwellers in Mashonaland Central Province, Zimbabwe. Rwanda J Med Health Sci. 2021;4(1):99–111. doi:10.4314/rjmhs.v4i1.8
28. Aghaji A, Udeh N, Okoye O, et al. Spectacle design preferences among school children in Enugu State, Nigeria. Niger J Clin Pract. 2021;24.
29. Ilechie AA, Asiaku J. Ophthalmic anthropometry for Ghanaian adults. J Health Visual Sci. 2010;12(1).
30. Sarna K, Sonigra K, Ngeow WC. A cross-sectional study to determine and compare the craniofacial anthropometric norms in a selected Kenyan and Chinese population. Plastic Surg. 2023;31(1):84–90. doi:10.1177/22925503211024763
31. Shah R, Frank-Ito DO. The role of normal nasal morphological variations from race and gender differences on respiratory physiology. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2023;297.
32. McDowell JL, Kenyhercz MW, L’ Abbe ENL. An evaluation of nasal bone and aperture shape among three South African populations. Forensic Sci Int. 2015;252.
33. Bouhadana G, Gornitsky J, Saleh E, Oliveira Trabelsi N, Borsuk DE. Expanding the classic facial canons: quantifying intercanthal distance in a diverse patient population. Plastic Reconstruct Surg Global Open. 2022;10(4):e4268. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000004268
35. Tagoh S, Kyei S, Kwarteng M, Aboagye E. Prevalence of refractive error and visual impairment among rural dwellers in Mashonaland Central Province, Zimbabwe. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2020;32(4):402–407. doi:10.4103/JOCO.JOCO_224_20
36. Jaqueta SD, Mashilo EN, Mocke K, Agigi AFA. Physical distribution challenges and adaptations: a qualitative study of South Africa-based organisations operating in emerging African markets. J Transport Supply Chain Manage. 2020;14.
37. Mbekeani K. Understanding the Barriers to Regional Trade Integration in Africa. Tunisia: African Development Bank; 2013.
39. Omolase CO, Mahmoud AO. Factors associated with non-compliance with spectacle wear in an adult Nigerian population. Afr J Biomed Res. 2009;12(1).
40. Kumaran SL, Periakaruppan SP. Ophthalmic anthropometry versus spectacle frame measurements: is spectacle fit in children compromised? Asian J Pharmace Res Health Care. 2022;14.
41. Ezinne NE, Mashige KP, Akano OF, Ilechie AA, Ekemiri KK. Spectacle utilisation rate and reasons for non-compliance with wearing of spectacles amongst primary school children in Onitsha, Anambra State, Nigeria. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2020;79(1). doi:10.4102/aveh.v79i1.544
42. Zulu NL, van Staden D. Experiences and perceptions of South African optometry students toward public eye care services. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2023;82(1). doi:10.4102/aveh.v82i1.726
43. Ramlagun K. Aesthetics and Spectacle Wear: Investigating Perceived Harmony Between Face Shape and Spectacle Frame Shape [PhD Thesis]. Anglia Ruskin University; 2024.
44. Enimah E, Nirghin U, Boadi-Kusi SB, Ntodie M. Determinants of traditional eye practices amongst rural dwellers in the Asikuma Odoben Brakwa District, Ghana. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2022;81(1). doi:10.4102/aveh.v81i1.678
45. Buthelezi S, Gerber B. Cultural Competence in ophthalmic dispensing education: a qualitative study. Adv Med Educ Prac. 2024;15(585):–94. doi:10.2147/AMEP.S438707
46. Hansraj R, Govender B, Joosab M, Magubane S, Rawat Z, Bissessur A. Spectacle frames: disposal practices, biodegradability and biocompatibility – a pilot study. Afr Vision Eye Health. 2021;80(1). doi:10.4102/aveh.v80i1.621
47. Adekunle AA, Olowo AY, James O, et al. Facial anthropometry measurement using 3D stereophotogrammetry analysis among Nigerians. J Craniofacial Surg. 2022;33(4):1178–1181. doi:10.1097/SCS.0000000000008036
48. Hartmann R, Nieberle F, Palm C, et al. Utility of smartphone-based three-dimensional surface imaging for digital facial anthropometry. JPRAS Open. 2024;39.
49. Aravind Eye Care System A. Optical Sales and Dispensing – a Practical Guide. First ed. Tamilnadu: Aravind Eye Hospital; 2007.
50. Walsh G, Wilkinson M. Materials and allergens within spectacle frames: a review. Contact Dermatitis. 2006;55(3):130–139. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.2006.00791.x
The region known as the Great Lakes of Africa is endowed with enormous natural and human resources with opportunities for socio-economic transformation, but the region has been plagued by conflicts, insecurity, and unimaginable human suffering for decades. The conflict in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) between the Congolese security forces and the Rwanda-backed M23 rebel group, and the US-led efforts which resulted in the peace agreement signed on June 27, 2025, is the focus of this paper.
While the conflict is not a new phenomenon, the recent military gains of M23 have raised concerns on the regional security implications of the escalating conflict. In January 2025, for example, the M23 group captured Goma, the largest city in North Kivu and the strategic mining hub of Walikale. The capture of the cities in both North and South Kiva provinces escalated the conflict with high fatalities and displacement. While applauding the peace agreement that was brokered by the United States (U.S.) and Qatar, one wonders why the African-led (African Union-AU) peace negotiations were not successful. The AU-backed peace process, which was launched in 2022, is a case in point.
The key question of interest is: What explains the renewed interest of the U.S. in the Great Lakes region? I address this question from two standpoints. First, I provide a brief background of the region with a focus on the root causes of the conflict. Second, I discuss the dynamics of the US-led peace efforts between DRC and Rwanda. I conclude by providing some recommendations on how Africa can develop a robust African-centered framework in taking the lead to resolve or find African-centered solutions to Africa’s problems.
The Great Lakes Region
The African Great Lakes consist of seven lakes covering different countries in Central, East, and Southern Africa. In order of their size from the largest to the smallest, the lakes include, Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, Lake Turkana, Lake Albert, Lake Kivu, Lake Edward. The region can be narrowly or broadly defined, but for lucidity purposes, this paper focuses on the narrow definition which includes four countries (i.e., DRC, Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda). According to the African Centre for the Constructive Resolutions of Disputes (ACCORD), conflicts in the Great Lakes region are not only interconnected, but they are also complex, often involving state and non-state actors with regional and global networks.
While some conflicts start within countries, they in most cases, spill over to other countries in the region due to cross-border or transnational ethnic identities and other interconnections. The root causes of conflicts in the region are clearly documented in the literature. Factors such as unequal access to resources, politics of exclusion, proliferation of small arms, and historical grievances between ethnic groups. Others include fragile states with weak political and governance systems, economic mismanagement, and the collapse of social services.
The conflict in the eastern Congo started in the aftermath of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide where ethnic Hutu extremists killed an estimated one million minority ethnic Tutsis and moderate Hutus. About two million Hutu refugees crossed into eastern Congo where most of them settled in refugee camps in the North Kivu and South Kivu provinces, including Hutu extremists who started organizing themselves in eastern Congo. After the victory of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) which ended the genocide in 1994, the RPF shifted its attention to eastern Congo in its efforts to deal with what it describes as the security threats from the Hutu extremist group. This led to the start of Rwanda’s involvement in eastern DRC under the Tutsi-led government of President Paul Kagame and the subsequent wars between the two countries. The First Congo War (1996-1997) and Second Congo War (1998-2002) are cases in point.
Rwanda, Uganda, and DRC signed peace agreements between 2002 and 2003. The peace agreements led to the formation of a transitional government in Kinshasa led by Joseph Kabila. Despite the efforts to achieve lasting peace in the region, clashes have continued to persist in the eastern DRC. The rise of M23 rebel group in the early 2000s in eastern DRC further complicated the conflict situation. Mostly made of ethnic Tutsis, M23 emerged as a formidable rebel group to the surprise of many observers. DRC has accused Rwanda of backing M23, but Rwanda has long denied the accusation. Instead, Rwanda claims its forces are acting in self-defense against DRC’s army and the remnants of ethnic Hutu militiamen that have been connected to the 1994 Rwandan genocide.
Paul-Simon Handy of the Institute of Security Studies captures it well when he noted that the mutual accusations between Rwanda and DRC never cease to end as Kigali continues to blame Kinshasa of supporting DRC-based Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), an argument, Rwanda often uses to justify its military incursions in eastern Congo. While Rwanda’s claim about the security concerns from the Hutu militia group linked to the 1994 genocide in eastern Congo has some merit, the question on the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the DRC cannot be ignored.
Previous Peace Efforts
Like other regions, security and peace are needed for the democratic progress and development in the Great Lakes region. Political leaders with support from the AU and external partners have been engaged in finding a lasting solution to the conflict, but they have been largely unsuccessful. The escalation of the crisis at the beginning of 2025 coupled with the military gains of M23 further reveals the failure of previous attempts to construct durable security architecture in the region. The 2013 Peace, Security and Cooperation Framework or the Addis Ababa Framework Agreement which was expected to be implemented with support from the UN, African Union, SADC, and the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) as guarantors could not be sustained given the re-emergence of M23.
As some experts have suggested, the implementation of the 2013 peace agreement by the ICGLR was problematic due to problems such as inadequate funding, decision making challenges, and lack of cooperation from the warring factions. After months of negotiations, the Luanda peace process was revived through the mediation of the Angolan President Joao Lourenço with support from the AU to help defuse the tension between Rwanda and DRC. Unfortunately, the escalation in fighting between the warring factions in 2023 led to another stalemate. This brings me to the US-led brokered peace deal with diplomatic support from Qatar, which was signed on June 27, 2025, in Washington DC.
The US-Brokered Peace Deal
There is no question that the US brokered peace with diplomatic support from Qatar, which was signed by the foreign ministers of Rwanda and DRC on June 27, 2025, marked a significant milestone towards peace in eastern Congo. The peace agreement, which was signed in the presence of U.S. Secretary of State, Marco Rubio, at the State Department overlooking the portrait of Colin Powell, the first African American U.S. Secretary of State, was a well-crafted symbolism with a strong African-centered imagery. The Trump administration’s sudden interest in the Great Lakes region and efforts to end the conflict came as a surprise to experts given the “prediction” that President Trump is not likely to engage actively with Africa in his second term.
It could be argued that Trump’s transactional approach to foreign policy with trade-inspired deal making provides a persuasive explanation for his renewed interest to resolve the conflict for access to critical mineral deposits in the region. Richard Moncrieff, an expert on the Great Lakes region, also noted that Trump’s senior officials realized that the resolution of the conflict will be a win for Trump as he continues to portray himself as a global peacemaker through his so-called foreign policy of peace through strength. It is clear that the U.S. has been involved in the region, like other regions in Africa through counterterrorism initiatives, but there is no question that the mineral reserves of DRC provided further incentives for the renewed interest from the U.S. in resolving the conflict. It was therefore not surprising that the June 27th agreement includes U.S. access to critical mineral reserves of DRC such as cobalt, copper, and lithium, which will benefit U.S. tech and electric vehicle companies.
Qatar’s role in the peace process deserves to be underscored as well. As generally known, Qatar is not new to high level diplomacy through conflict mediations, but its interest to help achieve peace in eastern Congo is worth discussing. To some experts, Qatar’s involvement could be driven by its precedent in mediating African conflicts such as the mediated conflict between rebels in Chad and the traditional government. Qatar is also strengthening its economic ties with countries in the region. For example, Qatar Airways has invested in RwandAir and has about 60% stake in the construction of the Bugesera International Airport in Rwanda. Similarly, the economic ties between Qatar and DRC have been strengthened since 2024 when Qatar Airways expanded its operations to Congo’s capital, Kinshasa.
The peace deal needs to be celebrated, but reactions to the deal are reported to be mixed in both countries, especially in DRC, as some have expressed concern about the access to the country’s vast mineral deposits as part of the peace agreement. For others, until a presidential handshake takes place between President Felix Tshisekedi of the DRC and President Paul Kagame of Rwanda to cement the peace agreement, problems are likely to arise. Let’s hope the proposed meeting between the two leaders will occur sooner than later. The inability of the AU and other regional leaders to take the lead in brokering the peace agreement is another source of concern for experts given the history of Africa’s marginalization on African-centered issues by global powers. The history of broken peace agreements between the two countries is another source for concern.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The Great Lakes region deserves peace, security, and democratic progress which has eluded the area for decades. As the region and the rest of Africa celebrate the new peace agreement, lasting peace, as Mvemba Phezo Dizolele, has noted, “requires more than a signature.” Not only do I share Mvemba’s more than a signature point of view, but I also support his critical suggestion that the implementation of the peace agreement and its likely future success depend on addressing the root causes of the conflict.
In addition to incorporating factors such as inclusive national dialogues, improved oversights, and economic diversification in the implementation of the peace agreement, I also recommend the creation of cross-national trust networks at the governmental and local levels and the strengthening of good governance practices in the region. The AU’s Peace/Security Architecture also needs to be supported to help Africa lead with African-centered solutions.
Dr. Felix Kumah-Abiwu
Dr. Felix Kumah-Abiwu is a Non-Resident Fellow (Governance & Democracy Division) at Nkafu Policy Institute (Denis & Lenora Foretia Foundation)
Associate Professor/Director, Center for African Studies Kent State University, Kent, Ohio (USA)
Dr. John E. Fleming, a distinguished museum leader, historian, husband, father and mentor to many in the museum profession, passed away on Friday, Sept. 12, 2025. He was 81 years old. He had lived in Yellow Springs for 35 years. Dr. Fleming was well known as a pre-eminent scholar, academician and author whose life’s work was the preservation and interpretation of African American history and culture.
